2.3 Marriage

2.3Marriage 

Definition and universality;
Laws of marriage (endogamy, exogamy, hypergamy, hypogamy, incest taboo);
Types of marriage (monogamy, polygamy, polyandry, group marriage).
Functions of marriage;
Marriage regulations (preferential, prescriptive and proscriptive);
Marriage payments (bride wealth and dowry).
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Defination and Universality:

Earlier(1929) Marriage was defined(by westmark) as :
“Marriage is a ritually recognized union b/w man and woman, that spouses live together and that couple have recognised mutual sexual right”.

Why this defination is not universal?
=Ritual= Contract marriage without ritual exists. Ex
=b/w man and woman= Gay and lesbian marriage exists. Ex it has been recognised as rightfull marriage in many western countries.
=Live togerther = in many society couples do not live together under one roof. Ex Nayars of Kerala.
=Recognises sexual right= In many tribes extra martial sex is permitted.

other defination (by Murdock) in later period:
 “Marriage is a universal institution that involves residential  cohabitation, economic cooperation and formation of nuclear family structure.
Why this defination is also universally not applicable:
=Nayars of kerla:
  1)residential cohabilation =husband and wife does not live under same roof.
2)Economic cooperation= Nope.
3)Nuclear family=nope.

defination by Seligman:
“Marriage is a union b/w a man and a woman such that the children born to the woman are recognized as legitimate offspring of both the parents”.

In all above case Union of Man and woman  has been mention; Lets see why its wrong:
=Nuer of Africa woman marries with woman.
=structure=woman whose husband dies can marry another woman as husband….and rear children by playing role of man.

To compunsate above gaps, new defination was further proposed:

Defination by Kathleen Gough:
=”Relationship established b/w a woman and one or more persons, which provides that a child born to the womanunder the circumstances not prohibited by the rules of relationship is accored full birth status rights, common to normal members of his society or the social stratum”.

Why even this defination is not universal?
=Azande Tribe (in Sudan) allows Homosexuality.

Another defination by William N. Stephen
“Marriage is a socially legitimate sexual union, began with public pronouncement, undertaken with the idea of permanence, assumed with more or less explicit marriage contract which spells out reciprocal economic obligations b/w the spouses and future children”.
why even this defination is not universal?
=Most societies do have Taboo period during which intercourse b/w spouses and their future chidren is prohibited.
=Extra marital sexual reltaionship is allowed in  some tibe…and marriage does not begin with public prouncement . Ex
=High divorce rate in many society, no sense of permanance.
=there are society in which union of man and woman does not involve any marriage contract
 =Nayars in kerla are major hurdle in defining:
 è child is not reared by mother and father but by Taravad.
è Tarvad= Goup of brothers and sisters having lineage from female side.
è two major ritual related to marriage:
      1)Tali right: before pubarty man accept a nayar woman as Tali husband…tali husband cant have sex, her wife just do some rituals in his death.
2)Sambandham= any man of higher caste other than Tali husband has sex with nayar woman….if a child is born then the nayar woman(Mother) has to identify a father and the father has to accept that he is the father by giving some money…..he(Father)  does

Conclusion :
Defination of marriage is not important as there are lots of variation in society; whats more importat is:
1)kind or right that are transffered through marriage in diff societies.
2)Kind of families and domestic grouping established by marriage .

Characteristic of Marriage

1)Charter:
>why marriage exists? || what the objective of marriage?
>It differs from society to society…Why?
marriage existance:
=Some society considers marriage as a social institution made by god.
=Some considers it made by ancestors.
Objective of marriage:
=for some society only objective is to “Create intimate relation b/w man and woman.
=for some its just to procreate children and perpetuate the family line.
=some for womens economic contribution.
=some for widening social relationship….or labor or property etc.
 
2)Mate choice:
>Selecting spouse, in some marriage there is no restriction on selection.
>some has restriction like cousing marriage is not allowed in many.
> if people are free they chose based on sexual preferance , skin colour, romance etc
>if they are not free they choose @bride price, reputation, property etc.

3)Financial transaction:
>Bride price or dowry.
>Bride service,= sometime groom goes to brides place and provide service like manual work in fields.
>Gift transaction b/w  groups linked through marriage.

4)Ceremonials:
=like fasting, drinking, verginity tests, instruction to couples etc

5)Residence
=Patrilocal : ladki, ladka ke ghar pe after shadi.
=Matrilocal: ladka, ladki ke ghar pe after shadi.
=Ambilocal: When couple have choice.
=Neolocal: When couple establish their own residence.

6)Authority:
=Patriarchy :Fathers family
=Matriarchy : mothers family
=Avunco-Postestality :authority in  Mothers brother hand.

7)Stablity:
=long last or divorce.

Law of Marriage:
>Marriage in every society is regulated by rules which affects nature , structure and  function of marriage.
3 types of rule:
1)Proscriptive Rules
2)Prescriptive Rules
3)Preferential Rules

Proscriptive rules:
=proscription: To say officially that something is banned (Oxford dictionary).
=Incest Taboo: Mating b/w relatives like Mother-son, Fater-daughter, cousin, fith generation etc are prohibitated.
=Exception: There are socities like Royalty in Egypt and Traditional Hawaiian had no such Taboo.

=4 Major reasons behind Proscriptive rules:

èInbreeding Avoidance:
>>Incest results in weaker gene-----less survival.
>>Although like in TN brahmin it may result in removal of recessive genes….but population genetics suggest harm is significant.
>>People practicing it did not know about Genetics but the Tribe who prctices it prospered compared to those who didn’t….so either later tribe got out numbered or adapted the practive of former.


èFamiliarity Breeds Avoidance:
>>Those who grow thogether natural generates aversion for sexual relationship.
>>Case study 1:
--Israeli Kibbutz
=in Kibbutz, Culture does not prohibits marriage among members.
=It has been observed that childeren who has seen each other nacked has little sexual intrest
=Kibbutz tends to choose partner from outside of their tibe.

  >>Case study 2:
--some Taiwanese people practices this.
= poor girl are sold in a rich family with a son in her young age.
=when they grow up they are married.
=It has been observed that such marriage has most extra marital affairs, sexual difficulties, less child etc.

>>Counter argument:
=Why then many society still practice incest.
=if natural aversion is already their then, why Taboo as a strict rule is required.


èPreventing disruption of the family:
>>Malinowski and Freud said “Sexual relation within family was prohibitated to avoid disuption of family.
>>Why?
=son would start competing with father for mother and daughter would compete with mother when becom adult……….thus rupturing family structure.
=According to Malinowski and Freud family members has very strong sexual intrest(Contrary to  concept of Familiarity breed avoidance).

>>Counter Argument:
=Why tabbo b/w brother and sister, as no compititon exists among them.
=a rule base alternative could be feasible instead of Taboo.

>>Conclusion:
=Although this logic of Malinowski and Freud makes sense…but to tacke with counter argument wee have to take Genetic problems.



èForming wider Alliance:
>> this theory was proposed by Claude Levis Strauss(1969).
>> Taboo was adopted in order to extend cooperation among larger group. As Taboo forces human to marry outside and thus new bond of cooperation is created.
>>we have seen matrimonial alliance among kings as a strategy for expansion.

Above all 4(è) combined explains reasons for proscriptive rules, there are many but these 4 are main reasons.

Prescriptive rules:
=just like Proscriptive rules of Incest Taboo, there are rules in form of Exogamy and Endogamy.

>>Exogamy:
=According to  E B Tylor, the hunter and gateror society had used Exogamy to prevent frequent clash b/w diff groups. In present society it is just a survival.

=According to Herbert Risley, desire to have a variety in life led to exogamy.

=According to Audrey Richards, due to scarcity of food among hunter and gatheror and since they were mobile….women were  often a burden hence they preferred women infanticide…and hence had to marry by abducting women from outside.

>>Endogamy:
=to maintain purity of the group or to prevent intermixing of unkown biological traits.

--Case study:
=Todas ,in Nilgiri hills, are divided into Moieties and Clans; there are diff clans within a Moietiy.
=Todas prefer Exogamy at clan level
=and Endogamy within Moeity level.



Preferential Rules:
>>Prefers certain cotegory of relatives over others.
 =Parallel cousin marriage
=Cross cousin marriage

=Levirate : Brother ke marne pe uski wife se marriage.
=Sororate: Wife ke marne pe uski sister se marriage.
Note: Levirate and Sororate occurs with polygyny, patrilocal and patrilinieal descent. Ex “Arapaho in middle east”.



Types and Forms of Marriage:

1>>Monogamy

2>>Polygamy:
a)Polyandry
b)Polygyny
c)Group marriage

1.Monogamy:
=evolutionist  says it to be a sign of progress.
=but no of partner in no way can indicate progress of society.
=Economic and population issues like less women  might be the reason.
=Serial Monogamy: in western society they have many spouses throught their life but only 1 at a time.

2.a. Polygyny:
= 1 Man to many women.
=Ex: Baiga, Nagas , Gonds, Todas etc.

2.b. Polyandry:
=1 women to many man.
=Note: its wrong to conclude that lack of women.
Why?:
# Ladakh= more women then man but polyandry is preferred.
# Toda=property consideration and sex disparity explains polyandry.

Important observation:
>fewer children are found in polyandry.
>high incidence of sterility among women.
>Biological reason behind above statement is yet to be found.

3)Hypergamy:
=Caste system of India.
=Woman can marry a person from her or abover her caste.
=While man can marry a person of high as well as low caste.
=AKA anuloma….maintains caste purity.

4)Hypogamy:
=women cant marry low caste.
=hence Brahmin women either had to accept polygyny(many man)…..since options of woman are limited.
=AKA pratiloma.

 

Function of Marriage:

>Biological :
=Reproduction.
=socially sentioned sexual desire.

>Economic:
=Man and women has diff role in labor force.
=Marriage provides this labor cooperation engendering economic cooperation.

>Social :
=Extending once kinship to new.
=social status.
=Desire to perpetuate family line.

>Educational:
=infant Child has long dependency on their parents.
=during this educating and imparting ones culture know how is done by parents.

Marriage payment
1>>Bride price.
2>>Dowry

1.Bride Price
=Man gives money to women house hold for marriage.
=money given is not a symbol of cost of women…….but value of loss of womens labour and her childrens contribution in womens orignial home.
=such Bride price is common in Patrilineal society. In Matrilineal society it occurs where patrilocus is being practiced ie. Woman in matrilieal society goes to mans house.
=usually occusr where Land is abundant, so that women and her children can provide labor.
=Subsitance economy like horticulture, pastoral where social stratification is low usually follows Bride price.
=In African society shift from bride price to dowry has been observed due to shift in economic behaviour.

=Anthropologist studies the strategies for bargening and negotiation as it has implications on status and power……can maximise social and political values.

2.Dowry:
=stratified society  like settled agriculture.
= benefits of dowry:
a)like bride pricewhich affirsm alliance b/w two families.
b)it may provide some protection against abusive husbands, as if she will leave her husband money is to be returned.
c)couple may use dawry to setup their own household.
d)She may rely on dowry in case husband dies….as often dowry is given in lieu of hereditary right of girld from her father.

=In europe dowry disappeared in 20^th centuary ….still practiced in South Asia.
=In india its banned by Dowry prohibition Act.
=Debate continues whether dowry deaths should be understood as a byproduct of the coustom itself or as the result of modern conditions that have undermigned the traditional connections between families brought together in marriage while inflating the clash value of dowries.